Did an Army of Lovers Really Dominate Ancient Greece?

My investigation into the life of Alexander the Great brought another incredible story to my attention: the rise (and fall) of the Sacred Band of Thebes in the 4th century BCE. 

Like many of the stories of Alexander, the account of the Sacred Band of Thebes is one that exists somewhere in that gray area between history and legend. There is just enough evidence, and possible embellishment, to ensure controversy. 

According to the ancient sources, the Sacred Band of Thebes was an elite unit of the Theban army composed of 300 of their finest soldiers. But there was a twist - these soldiers were in romantic pairings with one another...150 pairs of male lovers.

So why was the Sacred Band organized in this unprecedented fashion? Plutarch, the Greek historian from the 1st and 2nd century AD, lays out the justification in the Life of Pelopidas in Parallel Lives: 

"Tribesmen or clansmen do not feel any great concern for their kinfolk in time of danger, but a band which is united by the ties of love is truly indissoluble and unbreakable, since both lovers and beloved are ashamed to be disgraced in the presence of each other, and each stands his ground at a moment of danger to protect one another."

According to the ancient sources, the Sacred Band of Thebes was a key part of Thebes' rise to prominence in the 4th century BCE. The Band's first major victories were against Spartan forces at the Battles of Tegyra and Luectra in 375 and 371 BCE. The former is notable for being the first (and only) time that a Spartan army was defeated by a smaller force. After these wins, Thebes replaced Sparta as the dominant power in Greece.

Thebes' spot at the top of the Greek pecking order only lasted a few decades. It was none other than a young Alexander the Great and the Macedonian army, still led by Alexander's father Philip, who helped defeat the Sacred Band at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. According to Plutarch, King Philip was so impressed by the bravery of the Sacred Band (who allowed themselves to be slaughtered rather than surrender) that he wept at the sight of their bodies lying together across the battlefield. This was the end of the Sacred Band and beginning of Macedon's takeover of Greece (and far more). 

Ruins of the Theban citadel of Cadmea, where the Sacred Band was stationed

The story of the Sacred Band is certainly incredible - a small faction of elite warriors, bound by their romantic lover for one another, who defeat the mighty Spartans and become the mid-4th century's most intimidating fighting force. But is the legend true?

The short answer is no one knows. Most ancient historians accept the broad strokes of the story, including the part about the soldiers of the Band being lovers. But it doesn't so much matter how many historians believe it as what the evidence says.

Anytime one is assessing the historicity of an ancient event or claim, one must determine the reliable of the source(s). In the case of the Sacred Band, the primary source is the Greek writer Plutarch, who's considered quite influential, but not perfectly reliable. Plutarch is what's considered a moralizer - a story teller who's more concerned about finding meaning in the story than adhering to a strict historical telling. In other words, he was willing to bend the facts a bit to fit a certain lesson or perspective. 

But it's worth noting that Plutarch is not the only source who mentions, or alludes to, the Sacred Band. He is just the most thorough. 

There is also some interesting archaeological evidence regarding the Sacred Band of Thebes. In 1818, a British architect stumbled upon the buried head of the Lion of Chaeronea, a massive statue allegedly commissioned to honor the Sacred Band after their fall at the Battle of Chaeronea. The lion, which is approximately 12 feet tall, is now on display once again. 

Lion of Chaeronea statue, 1914

To add to the intrigue, excavators discovered the remains of 254 men buried within the enclosure surrounding the lion monument. Ancient weapons, pottery, coins, and other artifacts were also found nearby, as well as a tumulus that may have been used to cremate the dead.  

For some scholars, this finding is definitive proof that the story of the Sacred Band is based on real events. However, many historians dispute the identity of the skeletons, theorizing that they may actually be Macedonians, not Thebans. It's also worth noting that even if the skeletons are indeed the remains of the Sacred Band, it only proves they existed and fought at Chaeronea, not that they were lovers.  

So there are a couple of debates revolving around the Sacred Band of Thebes: Did it really exist and, if so, how responsible was it for the rise of Thebes in the 4th century? Then, of course, there is the question about whether the band really consisted of 150 pairs of lovers. 

Before attempted to answer those questions, I want to review 3 aspects of the debate over the historicity of the Sacred Band of Thebes that are important to keep in mind:

(1) Given the unprecedented nature of the claim (a fighting force composed entirely male lovers), there seems to be a surprisingly low amount of skepticism among historians. Sure, Plutarch may be a generally reliable source, but the plausibility of his claims does matter. The maxim "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence" comes to mind. To accept Plutarch's version of the Sacred Band as historical fact, we need a lot more than an account written centuries after its existence.

(2) Plutarch's account of the Sacred Band doesn't happen in isolation. It's part of his work Parallel Lives, which also features a lengthy biography of Alexander the Great. In his account, it is Alexander who courageously leads the Macedonians against the Sacred Band and ultimately defeats them. Plutarch builds Alexander up throughout his work and you have to wonder whether his description of the Sacred Band was influenced by ulterior motives. 

(3) The debate over the Sacred Band of Thebes taps into politically-charged issues. Historians aren't debating how much salt was in the Dead Sea, they are debating whether a group of male lovers really defeated the Spartans. It's a story that has potential to bring inspiration, affirmation, etc. to LGBT people and their allies, while infuriating (or at least annoying) less progressive people. In other words, there are all kinds of modern biases that could contaminate the debate over who the Sacred Band really was and what it accomplished. 

So what was the Sacred Band of Thebes actually like (if it existed at all)? I spoke to one of the world's leading experts on the subject - classical scholar David D. Leitao of San Francisco State University. Dr. Leitao is one of the most outspoken historians on this issue and his conclusions may surprise you.

You can hear for yourself in this episode of the Ancient Heroes podcast.